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By contrast, Wahhabi scholars forbid musical instruments altogether. When the Saudi kingdom challenged the Ottoman Empire militarily and doctrinally in the nineteenth century, Muhammad Ali, the Governor of Egypt, reportedly took pleasure in "torturing" captured Wahhabis by forcing them to listen to music.

The culture of jihad is a culture of romance. It promises adventure and pretends that the codes of medieval heroism and chivalry are still relevant. All jihadi poets depict themselves as the protectors of women and children, particularly widows and orphans. Having renounced their nationalities and the community of most co-religionists, the militants must invent an identity of their own. And, indeed, jihadi politics is a type of identity politics - a demand for recognition and a performance of authenticity.